Ciencia y Educación

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Vol. 6 No. 9

Septiembre del 2025

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EVALUACIÓN DE LA COMPETENCIA EN PENSAMIENTO CRÍTICO A TRAVÉS DE

ESTRATEGIAS DE APRENDIZAJE ACTIVO: UNA REVISIÓN SISTEMÁTICA DE LA

LITERATURA

ASSESSING CRITICAL THINKING COMPETENCE THROUGH ACTIVE LEARNING

STRATEGIES: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW

Autores:

Patricio David Mena Sevilla,

Carlos Julio Castro Angos,

José Manuel Jalil Hover y

Miguel Ángel Herrera Pavo.

¹ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2723-2178

²ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2854-5032

³ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7521-8561

ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0321-7235

¹E-mail de contacto: patricio.mena@uasb.edu.ec

²E-mail de contacto: carlos.castro@uasb.edu.ec

³E-mail de contacto: joey_jalil@hotmail.com

E-mail de contacto: miguel.herrera.p@uasb.edu.ec

Afiliación:

Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, (Ecuador).

2*3*4*

Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, (Ecuador).

Artículo recibido: 22 de Agosto de 2025

Artículo revisado: 31 de Agosto de 2025

Artículo aprobado: 16 de Septiembre de 2025

Magíster en Ciencias de la Educación. Especialista en Salud y Seguridad Ocupacional con mención en Salud Ocupacional. Docente de

la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, (Ecuador).

Magíster en Educación. Magíster en Derecho Penal. Magíster en Derecho Constitucional. Especialista en Derecho Constitucional.

Licenciado en Educación y Enseñanza de Inglés como segunda lengua. Máster en Tecnología Educativa y Máster en Psicopedagogía.

Psicopedagogo, Tecno-antropólogo y Doctor en Sociedad de la Información y el Conocimiento. Actualmente, Docente titular y director

del Área de Educación de la Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, sede Ecuador. Editor de la Revista Andina de Educación y docente

colaborador en el Máster de Educación y TIC de la Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, (España).

Resumen

Este artículo examina el papel de las estrategias

de aprendizaje activo en la evaluación y

desarrollo de la competencia en pensamiento

crítico en diversos contextos educativos, una

cuestión que se ha vuelto especial y relevante

tras la pandemia de COVID-19. Mediante una

revisión sistemática de la literatura que sigue las

directrices PRISMA 2020, se seleccionaron 33

estudios de acceso abierto publicados en los

últimos tres años a partir de diversas bases de

datos, utilizando términos de búsqueda en

inglés y español. Los estudios seleccionados,

que incluyen diseños cuantitativos, cualitativos,

de métodos mixtos y cuasiexperimentales,

aportan evidencia sólida de que las estrategias

de aprendizaje activo, como el aula invertida, el

aprendizaje basado en casos y los proyectos

colaborativos, mejoran significativamente las

habilidades de pensamiento crítico, al mismo

tiempo que fomentan el aprendizaje

socioemocional. El análisis revela una fuerte

asociación positiva entre estas técnicas activas

y el desarrollo del pensamiento crítico; sin

embargo, solo una cantidad limitada de estudios

aborda directamente la evaluación de estas

habilidades, lo que evidencia una brecha en la

investigación actual. En conjunto, los hallazgos

sugieren que transformar al estudiante en un

actor activo de su propio aprendizaje no solo

mejora su capacidad para analizar, sintetizar y

evaluar información, sino que también

contribuye al éxito académico y profesional. Se

recomienda que futuras investigaciones

incorporen perspectivas regionales diversas,

especialmente de América Latina y Ecuador,

para perfeccionar las estrategias de instrucción

y avanzar en las prácticas de evaluación basadas

en evidencia.

Palabras clave: Evaluación, Pensamiento

crítico, Aprendizaje activo, Enseñanza,

Aprendizaje, Competencias,

Socioemocional, Currículo educativo.

Abstract

This article examines the role of active learning

strategies in assessing and developing critical

thinking competence in various educational

contexts. This concern has become even more

critical following the COVID-19 pandemic. By

conducting a systematic literature review

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following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, the

authors selected 33 open-access studies

published within the last three years from

multiple databases using search terms in both

English and Spanish. The selected studies,

which include quantitative, qualitative, mixed-

methods, and quasi-experimental designs,

provide robust evidence that active learning

approaches, such as flipped classrooms, case-

based learning, and collaborative projects,

significantly enhance critical thinking skills

while fostering socio-emotional learning. The

analysis reveals a strong positive association

between these active techniques and the

development of critical thinking; however, only

a limited number of studies directly address the

assessment of these skills, indicating a notable

gap in the current research. The findings

suggest that transforming students into active

participants in their learning process improves

their capacity to analyse, synthesise, and

evaluate information and contributes to greater

academic and professional success. The authors

recommend that future research incorporate

diverse regional perspectives, particularly from

Latin America and Ecuador, to refine

instructional strategies and advance evidence-

based practices in educational assessment.

Keywords: Assessment, Critical thinking,

Active learning, Teaching, Learning,

Competencies, Socio-emotional, Educational

curriculum.

Sumário

Este artigo investiga o papel das estratégias de

aprendizagem ativa na avaliação e no

desenvolvimento da competência em

pensamento crítico em diversos contextos

educacionais, uma questão que se tornou ainda

mais relevante após a pandemia de COVID-19.

Através de uma revisão sistemática da

literatura, em conformidade com as diretrizes

PRISMA 2020, os autores selecionaram 33

estudos de acesso aberto publicados nos últimos

três anos a partir de múltiplos bancos de dados,

utilizando termos de busca em inglês e

espanhol. Os estudos selecionados, que

abrangem desenhos quantitativos, qualitativos,

de métodos mistos e quase-experimentais,

fornecem evidências robustas de que

abordagens de aprendizagem ativa — como

salas de aula invertidas, aprendizagem baseada

em casos e projetos colaborativos — promovem

melhorias significativas nas habilidades de

pensamento crítico, ao mesmo tempo em que

incentivam o aprendizado socioemocional. A

análise demonstra uma forte associação positiva

entre essas técnicas ativas e o desenvolvimento

do pensamento crítico; contudo, apenas uma

parcela limitada dos estudos aborda diretamente

a avaliação dessas habilidades, indicando uma

lacuna na pesquisa atual. Em suma, os

resultados sugerem que transformar os

estudantes em participantes ativos do próprio

processo de aprendizagem não só aprimora sua

capacidade de analisar, sintetizar e avaliar

informações, mas também contribui para o

sucesso acadêmico e profissional. Recomenda-

se que pesquisas futuras incorporem

perspectivas regionais diversas, especialmente

da América Latina e do Equador, para refinar as

estratégias de ensino e avançar nas práticas de

avaliação baseadas em evidências.

Palavras-chave: Avaliação, Pensamento

crítico, Aprendizagem ativa, Ensino,

Aprendizagem, Competências,

Socioemocional, Currículo educacional.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly impacted

approximately 1.3 billion students worldwide,

exposing them to stress and psychological

consequences that persist today (Bonilla, 2020).

This crisis highlighted the need to re-evaluate

educational practices and goals, as the

pandemic altered the affected psychosocial

traits (Vargas et al. 2021). These changes

influenced not only students but also teachers,

many of whom experienced anxiety and

helplessness on a global scale (University of

Portland et al., 2020). Educators and

policymakers have increasingly emphasised the

inclusion of critical thinking as a key learning

outcome, along with a growing demand for

curricula incorporating social-emotional

learning (SEL) (Blewitt et al., 2020).

Consequently, national education guidelines

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have reinforced the importance of critical

thinking for both academic and non-academic

success. Active collaboration strategies help

students develop self-awareness, build

relationships, and make informed decisions

(University of Portland et al. 2020). Likewise,

constructivist and active learning approaches

are crucial in fostering critical thinking (Gaspe

y Hathiringe, 2024).

Assessment serves a dual purpose: it measures

student progress while also functioning as a tool

for critical thinking by promoting self-reflection

(Lakhtakia et al., 2022). Developing critical

thinking requires students to analyse,

synthesise, and evaluate information to reach

logical conclusions (Hwang et al., 2023).

Effective assessment methods, such as self-

assessment and peer assessment, enhance

student engagement and encourage

metacognition, leading to more meaningful

learning experiences (Ilhan, Pocan, y Aslaner

2023). Active learning strategies further

strengthen critical thinking and collaboration,

improving learning outcomes. These strategies

transform students from passive recipients to

active participants, allowing them to develop

teamwork, adaptability, and creativity (Reddy

et al. 2024). Likewise, self-assessment and peer

assessment allow students to develop skills

related to acquired knowledge, strengthening

the teaching-learning process. However, it has

been shown that many academic environments

do not adequately develop students' skills to

analyse, organise, and articulate ideas critically,

which suggests the need for teacher training and

ongoing education. (Ccoto Tacusi 2023;

Leshowitz, DiCerbo, y Symington s. f.)

Despite the recognised importance of critical

thinking, teachers and students rarely assess it

in the classroom (Aston 2023). Undoubtedly,

assessing this competence represents a

challenge in the teaching-learning process, so it

is necessary to measure progress to improve the

application of strategies (Kadrija et al., 2023).

Active learning techniques such as Socratic

dialogue and classroom debate allow students to

approach biases and develop arguments based

on evidence. (Bates et al., 2024; Khan, 2020).

Consequently, more research is required to

understand how to apply these strategies in

different educational contexts. Therefore, this

research analyses the relationship between

active learning techniques and the evaluation of

critical thinking.

Considering the explanatory framework, the

main research question (PRQ) is; what is the

relationship between assessing critical thinking

and active learning techniques in educational

contexts? To analyse this relationship in more

depth, the study determines the following

supporting questions; RQ1: How effectively

can teachers and students assess critical

thinking skills in the classroom?; RQ2: How

feasible is the development of critical thinking

within current educational processes?; RQ3:

Are active learning techniques essential for

fostering critical thinking? Based on the

research questions, the study aims to establish

how active learning techniques contribute to the

assessment of critical thinking and provide

information about the role of these strategies in

the teaching-learning process.

Material and Methods

This study is based on a systematic literature

review (SLR) applying PRISMA 2020

standards (Page et al. 2021) to analyse the

relationship between the assessment of active

learning techniques and critical thinking

assessment. An integrative bibliographic search

was conducted to select primary and secondary

research articles in English and Spanish. The

search queries were (1) for Scopus: TITLE-

ABS-KEY( “assessment” AND “critical

thinking” AND “active learning"); (2) for WoS:

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((“ assessment ” (Topic) AND "critical

thinking" (Topic) AND "active learning"

(Topic)); and (3) for Scielo: (all indexes

(“assessment” AND "critical thinking" AND

"active learning")) The review was conducted

based on articles published in the last three

years (2022-2024), a time interval chosen due

to the influence that the COVID-19 pandemic

had on education, particularly on the teaching-

learning process, assessment practices, and the

development of critical thinking. Studies were

retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, and

SciELO. The inclusion criteria considered

studies published as open-access in indexed

journals in Spanish and English addressing the

evaluation of critical thinking competencies, the

role of critical thinking in teaching-learning

processes, and the implementation of active

learning strategies. In contrast, those studies

published in languages other than Spanish or

English, non-open-access articles, duplicates,

or those published outside the selected

timeframe were excluded. From this search, 33

articles were selected (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1. PRISMA 2020 flow diagram

To ensure methodological rigour and minimise

bias, the research team used the 2022 Johns

Hopkins Health System/Johns Hopkins School

of Nursing tool (Hopkins John s. f.) to evaluate

the thirty-three selected articles. This tool

categorises studies based on levels of evidence

and quality. Levels of evidence range from

Level I, which represents the highest quality

evidence typically derived from randomised

controlled trials, to Level III, which includes

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descriptive, observational, and qualitative

studies. Quality ratings are assigned by

evaluating criteria such as study design, sample

size, methodological transparency, and the

consistency of findings; grades A, B, and C

denote high, moderate, and low quality,

respectively. The research team classified the

articles based on the criteria established in the

tool to ensure rigour and reliability according to

the levels of evidence. Coding was performed

systematically to organise and relate the

findings to the research questions. This rigorous

evaluation provided robust information,

ensuring that only studies that meet appropriate

standards contribute to the overall conclusions.

An individual code was assigned for the

articles, beginning with the letter "P" followed

by an identification number. The research

question code followed (RQ1, RQ2, or RQ3).

Finally, the study's methodological approach

code included quantitative (Qt), qualitative

(QI), mixed methods (MMA), or quasi-

experimental (Qe).

Results and Discussion

The results are presented in two separate

illustrations. The first provides a visualisation

of 33 selected articles, the research methods,

levels of evidence, and quality classification.

The second illustration describes the themes,

dimensions, and factors related to the three

research questions: assessment, critical

thinking, and active learning techniques, which

are used to improve educational practice.

Characteristics of the selected studies

The data analysis included the 33 selected

articles, which strongly represent Active

Learning (RQ3), with 52% (17 articles)

addressing innovative strategies such as flipped

classrooms, case-based learning, problem-

solving, and collaborative skills development.

This dominance suggests a pedagogical shift

toward learner-centred approaches to

cultivating practical and transferable

competencies. Critical Thinking (RQ2)

accounts for 39% (13 articles), highlighting the

growing recognition of analytical reasoning,

argumentation, and metacognitive awareness as

essential skills for academic and professional

success. Meanwhile, Assessment (RQ1)

accounts for 9% (3 articles), indicating a minor

but notable focus on refining assessment

methods to measure deeper learning outcomes

and self-regulated learning. Regarding research

methods, quantitative designs account for 52%

of articles, mixed methods 27%, quasi-

experimental studies 12%, and qualitative

studies 9%.

The distribution of levels of evidence further

contextualises these trends. The predominance

of level III studies (85%, 28 articles),

comprising quantitative (QT), qualitative (Ql),

and mixed methods (MMA) approaches,

underscores a reliance on observational and

descriptive research rather than experimental

designs. While level III studies provide valuable

insights into classroom practices and student

perceptions, they are limited in establishing

causal relationships, which may restrict their

applicability to broader educational settings.

Level II studies (12%, four articles), primarily

quasi-experimental (Qe), represent efforts to

validate interventions more rigorously.

However, their relatively low percentage

suggests that empirical testing of instructional

strategies remains an area of growth. Notably,

here were no Level I studies (RCTs),

highlighting the lack of gold-standard evidence

in this field. Quality analysis reveals that 58%

(19 articles) received an A (high quality) grade,

demonstrating clear methodologies, sufficient

sample sizes, and well-defined conclusions.

These studies, particularly in Active

Techniques (RQ3), effectively integrate

practical applications with defined outcomes.

39% (13 articles) received a B grade (good

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quality), often due to minor methodological

limitations, smaller sample sizes, or restricted

generalizability. Only 3% (1 article) received a

C grade (low quality), indicating that most

studies in this review maintain acceptable

standards of rigour and reliability. However, the

prevalence of Level III evidence among high-

quality articles suggests the need to advance

research designs toward Level I and II to

strengthen the field's empirical base.

Active Learning (RQ3) dominance aligns with

contemporary trends prioritising interactive,

hands-on, technology-enhanced learning

models. These studies often employ mixed

methods approaches (MMA, 27%) to capture

both quantitative results and qualitative

perspectives, reflecting an effort to balance

statistical rigour with narrative depth. In

contrast, critical thinking studies (RQ2), while

abundant, most often rely on quantitative (QT,

52%) and quasi-experimental (Qe, 12%)

designs, demonstrating attempts to assess skill

development in structured settings. Evaluation

(RQ1), despite its limited representation,

includes high-quality mixed-methods research

(MMA), suggesting a focus on exploratory

frameworks rather than established

measurement tools.

Table 1. Selected studies. Evidence Level – Quality Level. Coding.

Title

Central topic

Evidence level

Quality level

Code

Assessment as Learning in

Medical Education: Feasibility.

This article investigates the "Assessment as Learning" (AaL) concept in medical

education, emphasising student-centred approaches to self-regulated learning and

evaluation frameworks.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Clear methodology,

sufficient sample size, and

consistent findings)

P1 - RQ1 -

MMA

Based Case-Based Learning

and Flipped Classroom

Methods to Improve Critical

Thinking

This study investigates integrating case-based learning (CBL) and flipped classroom (FC)

methods to enhance active learning and critical thinking among international physiology

students. It demonstrates improved enthusiasm, problem-solving skills, and application of

theoretical knowledge.

III (Quantitative)

A (Well-designed intervention

with clear impact)

P2 - RQ3 - Qt

Behavioural Assessment of

Soft Skills Development in

Pre-Medical Biology Courses

This work evaluates a structured course to enhance soft skills for pre-medical students. It

incorporates active learning, collaborative work, and patient simulations. The focus is on

integrating assessment methods to evaluate behavioural and critical thinking

competencies.

III (Quantitative)

B (Adequate methodology,

but lacks deeper statistical

robustness)

P3-RQ1-Qt

Beyond the Passive

Absorption: Engaging Students

in Critical Reading of

Scientific Articles

This work proposes an active learning framework combining argumentation, peer review,

and task-oriented reading to develop science students' critical reading and reasoning skills.

It highlights the need for explicit opportunities to strengthen these abilities through

structured activities.

III (Qualitative)

B (Clear themes but some

limitations in generalizability)

P4-RQ2-Ql

P4-RQ1-Q1

Cultivating Critical Thinking

Skills: A Pedagogical Study in

a Business Statistics Course

This study examines teaching strategies, including Socratic dialogue and active learning,

to foster critical thinking in business statistics. It highlights gaps in educational practices

and emphasises faculty training for teaching critical thinking.

III (Quantitative)

A (Solid methodology and

reliable statistical analysis)

P5-RQ2-Qt

P5-RQ1-Qt

Developing Analytical and

Observational Skills in

Undergraduate Engineering

Students

The research focuses on enhancing analytical and observational skills using poster

presentations and peer reviews in engineering education. It evaluates the method’s

effectiveness through surveys and metrics such as creativity, conceptual understanding,

and critical thinking development.

III (Quantitative)

A (Precise metrics and

evaluation criteria)

P6-RQ3-Qt

Effect of Team-Based

Learning on Classroom

Engagement, Critical Thinking

Dispositions, and Academic

Performance in Nursing

Students

A quasi-experimental study that evaluates the impact of team-based learning (TBL) on

engagement, critical thinking, and academic achievement in nursing students. This study's

results demonstrate higher engagement, enhanced critical thinking, and improved test

scores compared to traditional teaching.

II (Quasi-Experimental)

A (Robust design with well-

defined experimental groups)

P7-RQ2-Qe

Empowering Students through

Active Learning in Educational

Big Data Analysis

This work explores active learning approaches to improve students’ data analysis and

critical thinking skills. Tasks integrate data-driven projects, peer evaluations, and

reflections to enhance analytical and problem-solving abilities.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Combines practical

implementation with data

analysis)

P8-RQ3-

MMA

Enhancing Authentic

Assessment in Large-Class

Design Education Through

Authentic Project-Based

Learning

The study investigates how authentic project-based learning can improve assessment

methods, critical thinking, and engagement in large design education classes and

highlights strategies for developing effective evaluation systems.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Well-structured, detailed

analysis and relevant findings)

P9-RQ1-

MMA

Escape Rooms in Pharmacy

Education: More Than Just a

Game

The research explores escape rooms as a game-based learning strategy to promote critical

thinking, teamwork, and decision-making in pharmacy education. Results show high

engagement and effectiveness in reinforcing course content.

III (Quantitative)

A (Engaging and measurable

learning outcomes)

P10-RQ3-Qt

P10-RQ1-Qt

Flipped Classroom: Perception

of Early Childhood Education

Students

This work examines students' perceptions of the flipped classroom model in early

childhood education programs. It evaluates motivation, comprehension, autonomy, and

competence acquisition. Results highlight enhanced creativity and cross-disciplinary

competencies, reinforcing flipped classrooms as effective pedagogical tools.

III (Quantitative)

B (Good methodology but

lacks deeper impact

evaluation)

P11-RQ3-Qt

I Do, I Understand: Engaging

Campus and Distance Students

through Active Learning

The study integrates asynchronous and synchronous distance learning approaches with

active learning strategies to engage students. It highlights critical thinking development

through videos, fieldwork, and collaborative tasks.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Clear structure and hybrid

teaching assessment)

P12-RQ3-

MMA

Impact of Case-Based

Learning Strategy

Implementation on Clinical

This work evaluates the effects of case-based learning (CBL) on motivation, critical

thinking, and professional competencies. A quasi-experimental study showed statistically

significant improvements in learning outcomes.

II (Quasi-Experimental)

B (Good design but lacks

long-term outcome

evaluation)

P13-RQ2-Qe

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Practice Students in

Physiotherapy

Incorporating Visualization

Tools and Active Learning

Approaches for Programming

Courses

This paper discusses integrating visualisation tools and active learning methods to teach

programming. It enhances logical thinking, debugging, and programming skills,

addressing gaps in traditional methods.

III (Quantitative)

B (Useful framework but

limited scalability)

P14-RQ3-Qt

Innovative Self-Directed

Clinical Case Exercise

(SPLICE): Fostering Critical

Thinking in Medical Education

The study introduces the SPLICE model, which combines self-directed learning and

clinical case analysis to develop critical thinking and communication skills. Results from

intervention and control groups highlight SPLICE's effectiveness.

III (Quantitative)

A (Clear data presentation and

reproducibility)

P15-RQ2-Qt

Integration of Visual Thinking

Strategies in Undergraduate

Health Assessment Courses

This work explores the feasibility of using visual thinking strategies (VTS) to enhance

critical thinking and interpersonal skills in nursing education. Combines in-person and

online sessions with visual analysis techniques.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Clear methodology and

focus on critical thinking)

P16-RQ2-

MMA

Investigating the

Transformative Effects of

Active Learning Approaches in

Engineering Education

This research evaluates active learning methodologies, such as peer instruction, project-

based learning, and simulations, to enhance engagement and critical thinking. Results

support active learning to improve problem-solving and lifelong learning habits.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Balanced methods and

strong results)

P17-RQ3-

MMA

Learning by Doing Using the

Life Cycle Assessment Tool:

Collaboration with Industries

The paper uses Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to examine experiential learning through

industry projects. Focuses on developing analytical and transferable skills for engineering

students in collaborative industry contexts.

III (Quantitative)

A (Industry-based learning

approach with measurable

results)

P18-RQ3-Qt

Learning by Storytelling and

Critiquing: Enhancing

Information Literacy and

Critical Thinking

This work explores digital storytelling combined with peer evaluation to promote critical

thinking, information literacy, and self-efficacy among students. A quasi-experimental

study found significant improvement in learning outcomes.

II (Quasi-Experimental)

B (Good insights but slightly

limited sample size)

P19-RQ2-Qe

P19-RQ1-Qe

Microteaching and Peer

Assessment in Mathematics

Teaching Practice

This study uses micro-teaching and peer assessment to enhance critical thinking, self-

reflection, and pedagogical skills in future mathematics teachers. Highlights

improvements in cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.

III (Qualitative)

B (Reflective insights but

small sample size)

P20-RQ2-Ql

Modern Ways of Learning as a

Means of Enhancing Cognitive

Activity

This paper analyses the effectiveness of interactive learning methods such as group work,

case studies, and self-assessments to boost cognitive activity. The study evaluates the

impact of these approaches on interdisciplinary collaboration and critical thinking

development.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Creative approach and

application)

P21-RQ3-

MMA

P21-RQ1-

MMA

Perceptions of Medical

Students on Active Learning

Strategies in Embryology

This study evaluates active learning strategies, including DIY modelling, reciprocal peer

tutoring, and case discussions, to improve understanding and critical thinking in

embryology. Findings show enhanced comprehension and problem-solving skills.

III (Quantitative)

B (Engaging method but lacks

longitudinal analysis)

P22-RQ3-Qt

Problem-Based Learning in a

Flipped Classroom: Effects on

Pain Management Courses

This quasi-experimental study compares flipped classrooms using problem-based learning

with traditional methods in nursing programs. The results reveal higher academic

performance and critical thinking in flipped groups.

II (Quasi-Experimental)

A (Experimental rigour and

results)

P23-RQ3-Qe

Purposeful Field Trips:

Enhancing Experiential

Learning and Higher-Order

Thinking

This work investigates the impact of experiential learning through structured field trips on

higher-order thinking skills and knowledge transferability. The results emphasise the

importance of pre-trip activities for reinforcing learning outcomes.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Practical activities with

measurable effects)

P24-RQ3-

MMA

Students' Performance and

Perceptions of Mock Trials as

Teaching Tools

This research assesses the use of mock trials to teach legal and ethical issues in pharmacy

education. Findings demonstrate increased engagement, critical analysis, and teamwork

among students.

III (Quantitative)

B (Reasonable statistical

approach but lacks qualitative

insights)

P25-RQ2-Qt

Students’ Assessment of

Learning in Psychology Using

Process-Oriented Guided

Inquiry Learning (POGIL)

This paper examines the impact of POGIL in psychology education on active learning and

critical thinking. Results show significant improvement in process skills, motivation, and

conceptual understanding.

III (Quantitative)

B (Sound methodology but

needs broader sampling)

P26-RQ3-Qt

Teaching and Assessing

Critical Thinking with

Educational Technology in

Higher Education

This work focuses on integrating educational technology to teach and assess critical

thinking in higher education. The study highlights the role of online platforms and digital

tools in fostering analytical skills.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Strong design and clear

application of methods)

P27-RQ2-

MMA

Teaching Dynamics to

Enhance Critical Thinking and

Knowledge Sharing in

Mathematics Education

This study explores active learning strategies, collaborative problem-solving, and

technology integration to develop critical thinking in undergraduate mathematics courses.

It reports improvements in engagement, self-assessment, and peer feedback.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Blends theory and practice

effectively)

P28-RQ3-

MMA

The Impact of Critical

Thinking on Learning

Outcomes Assessment in

Primary Schools

This work investigates how critical thinking strategies influence primary education

assessment methods and learning outcomes. It finds that critical thinking techniques

strengthen academic performance and motivation in classrooms.

III (Quantitative)

A (Statistical rigor and well-

defined scope)

P29-RQ2-Qt

The Use of Video Essays and

Podcasts to Enhance Creativity

and Critical Thinking in

Engineering Education

This paper explores the integration of video essays and podcasts as tools to develop

creativity and critical thinking in engineering programs. Results highlight improved

articulation, originality, and problem-solving skills.

A (Creative approach

with measurable

outcomes)

A (Creative approach with

measurable outcomes)

P30-RQ2-Qt

P30-RQ1-Qt

Unlocking Learner Potential:

Using Escape Rooms for

Critical Thinking and Risk

Assessment Training

This work reviews the implementation of educational escape rooms as active learning

tools to enhance critical thinking and risk assessment in genetics counselling education.

Students engage in problem-solving and teamwork while applying knowledge to clinical

scenarios.

III (Mixed-Methods

Approach)

A (Clear execution, engaging

activities, and strong data)

P31-RQ2-

MMA

Using Case-Based Learning to

Enhance Students’

Performance in Mechanical

Engineering Undergraduate

Programs

This study investigates the impact of case-based learning (CBL) on conceptual

understanding, student engagement, and knowledge application in mechanical

engineering. It demonstrates higher performance and motivation among students exposed

to CBL than traditional lectures.

III (Quantitative)

A (Strong case application and

results)

P32-RQ3-Qt

Why Is This Hard? Exploring

Factors Affecting Critical

Thinking in Higher Education

This work examines psychological and sociological barriers to critical thinking among

higher-education international students. It employs workshops and qualitative analysis to

highlight improved awareness of biases, argument construction, and independent thinking.

III (Qualitative)

B (Thematic depth but limited

generalizability)

P33-RQ2-Ql

Fuente: elaboración propia

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These findings underscore the need for higher-

level evidence (Level I) through randomised

controlled trials (RCTs) to validate the efficacy

of active techniques and critical thinking

interventions. Furthermore, expanding the

scope of evaluation studies (RQ1) is crucial to

developing robust evaluation frameworks that

capture long-term impacts on student learning.

While the aggregate trends provide a broad

overview of the methodological landscape

across the selected studies, the following

section delves deeper into the specific

dimensions and factors that underpin these

findings. This detailed thematic analysis reveals

the nuances of how assessment, critical

thinking, and active learning interact within

educational contexts.

Detailed thematic analysis of dimensions and

factors

This section presents the findings according to

the study’s three research questions on

Assessment (RQ1), Critical Thinking (RQ2),

and Active Learning (RQ3). Each topic is

explored through different dimensions and

factors from the reviewed literature, illustrating

how these areas intersect to shape educational

practices (see Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Dimensions and factors by RQ 1-3

Assessment

The central topic of RQ1 is evaluation, which

fosters essential skills such as reflection,

decision-making, collaborative work, and

critical thinking. One key dimension identified

is reflective emotional management,

encompassing factors like Emotional

Awareness. This skill is particularly developed

in collaborative contexts, as students must

understand and manage their emotions and

those of others. Self-assessment enables

students to gauge their acquired knowledge and

determine its relevance to their learning process

(Kryucheva y Tolstoukhova 2023). In parallel,

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peer assessment plays a critical role by allowing

students to analyse evaluation criteria and

incorporate feedback from their peers, thereby

promoting the development of critical thinking

skills (Hwang et al., 2023). Indeed, feedback is

paramount in problem-solving, as (Ilhan et al.,

2023) noted. Another dimension relates directly

to the basic elements of critical thinking,

analysing, self-regulating, interpreting,

inferring, explaining, and evaluating.

Reflection, as a component of the teaching-

learning process, further develops critical

thinking skills (Kryucheva y Tolstoukhova,

2023). The reviewed studies consistently

indicate that guided peer assessment, achieved

through the analysis of assessment criteria,

reinforces critical thinking (Hwang et al.,

2023). The cooperation factor, which

emphasises individual and collaborative skills

such as teamwork, is also integral to the

evaluation process. Interactive methods, such as

debate, foster critical thinking and empathy and

promote tolerance by respecting diverse criteria

(Kryucheva y Tolstoukhova 2023).

Evaluation techniques also yield several

important factors. For instance, evaluation

rubrics serve as clear, prior, and explanatory

guides for students, ensuring they understand

the evaluation process. (Caratozzolo et al,.

2022) assert that analysing learning

development indicators is essential to

promoting competencies. (Hwang et al., 2023)

highlight that using these rubrics allows

students to verify their peers’ work from the

teacher's perspective. Structured feedback is

crucial as a subsequent factor; (Archila et al.,

2024) emphasise that peer assessment must be

student-centred, requiring teachers to facilitate

effective feedback. Moreover, the study by

(Indriati et al., 2024) confirms that productive

feedback significantly enhances students’ work

and supports the development of critical

thinking. Finally, comparative processes in

evaluation further enrich this dimension by

enabling students to benchmark their

performance against established standards.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is fostered in collaborative

educational environments where learning is

measured by comparing students’ development

against established standards. (Dori y Lavi

2023) suggest that enhancing students’ critical

and reflective capacities is essential, while

(Kryucheva y Tolstoukhova, 2023) note that

peer exchanges prompt reflection and learning

from one another’s work. In addressing RQ2,

several dimensions were identified. The first

dimension, analytical thinking, encompasses

data selection, a skill that leverages critical

thinking to support problem-solving by

identifying relevant information to build robust

arguments (Bargiela et al., 2022; Sanad et al,.

2023). Additionally, assessing data validity and

credibility is crucial; learners must discern

which sources are reliable and evidenced

through appropriate support resources (Hwang

et al. 2023), with these learning experiences

ideally mirrored in real-world contexts

(Rosenberg et al. 2024). Another key dimension

is objective and critical analysis. This includes

the organisation of data, which enables the

sequencing of patterns and the visualisation of

relationships between concepts (Choi et al.

2022), aided by organisational software for

assertive analysis (Dori & Lavi 2023). Selecting

supporting evidence is also vital; the rationale

behind information selection should be

systematic rather than arbitrary, ensuring that

evidence is relevant and presented (Caratozzolo

et al., 2022; Jácome et al., 2022). Moreover,

categorising data strengthens arguments by

establishing a hierarchical framework.

The dimension of participation in action focuses

on argument creation, where statistical

reasoning is used to justify claims, and

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collaborative debates enhance structured logic

(Bargiela et al., 2022; Dominguez, 2024).

Decision-making processes integrating

evidence evaluation, option comparison, and

collaborative problem-solving improve

adaptive reasoning (Sanad et al., 2023;

Surapaneni, 2024). Together, these dimensions

form a holistic framework for critical thinking,

emphasising data selection, organisation, and

evaluation as foundational to effective

argumentation and decision-making (Bargiela

et al., 2022; Jácome-Hortua et al., 2022; Muñoz

et al., 2021; Rosenberg et al., 2024)

Active Learning

Structured methods and interactive tools can

enhance students’ ability to analyse

information, justify reasoning, and tackle

complex challenges in both academic and

professional settings (Choi et al., 2022;

Rosenberg et al., 2024). The central theme

addressed by RQ3 is Active Techniques, which

refocuses the teaching-learning process on the

student and emphasises knowledge

construction. These pedagogical strategies

actively involve learners, promoting autonomy,

argumentation skills, and the practical

application of acquired knowledge, thereby

positioning students as central agents in their

educational journey (Jácome et al. 2022). The

first dimension identified is the Promotion of

Active Participation. This dimension

underscores the importance of key areas such as

the relationship between the student and

teacher, the connection with the learning

process, and the integration of the student into

their educational environment (Sanad et al.

2023). Within this dimension, the

empowerment factor of leadership teams is

crucial; for example, motivation allows students

to interact and critically question the

educational process to optimally assimilate the

material (Kryucheva y Tolstoukhova, 2023).

Collaborative leadership in work teams

enhances individual autonomy and contributes

to group problem-solving (Foo y Foo, 2022;

Rumain et al., 2024), while effective team

leadership unifies criteria and facilitates

coherent decision-making (Dominguez 2024).

Moreover, professional development and

investment, through adequate training and

provision of resources, are essential to support

active techniques, particularly in diverse

educational contexts (Archila et al., 2024; Tsai,

2024; Yang et al., 2024).

The second dimension is the Promotion of

Autonomous Behaviour. Active techniques

empower students to become the primary actors

in their learning, enhancing their understanding

of theoretical concepts (Fuentes y Prieto, 2024).

When students engage in group activities that

foster the negotiation of meanings and

collective knowledge creation, their adaptive

reasoning and overall performance improve

(Archila et al., 2024; Dominguez, 2024; Dori y

Lavi, 2023). Furthermore, the role of the student

as an active learner reinforces the constructivist

model, encouraging the discovery of innovative

solutions to educational challenges (Rumain

et al. 2024), which can be applied across

various learning environments to reduce gaps

and improve educational programs (Yang et al.,

2024). The third dimension, Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning, emphasises that

students from diverse disciplines can exchange

perspectives and knowledge, thereby reducing

area-specific biases (Tsai, 2024). Key factors

include establishing strong connections

between teachers and students, where empathy

and effective teacher-student rapport are critical

(Reiser, 2023), and promoting interpersonal

relationships and collaborative learning (Kore y

Begum, 2022). Additionally, teacher

motivation is vital in successfully implementing

active techniques, directly influencing

classroom interactions (Merrou et al., 2023).

Critical content analysis is developed through

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innovative strategies. Additionally, they reverse

traditional learning orders (analyse before

practising), improving student understanding

(Fuentes y Prieto, 2024; Patil et al., 2022).

Finally, it is essential to reinforce the

effectiveness of active techniques. Teachers

must connect with students to facilitate

knowledge development (Rumayor et al.,

2024).

The analysis of the dimensions of assessment,

critical thinking, and active learning has

revealed a collaborative and comprehensive

approach that improves the efficiency of the

learning environment. Constructivist feedback

encourages better assessment, as proposed by

(Ilhan et al., 2023), and group work,

communication skills, and self-reflection create

a self-regulated learning environment,

developing critical thinking. (Kryucheva y

Tolstoukhova, 2023)suggest that active

learning techniques, assessment, and self-

assessment are essential for teaching practices,

as this is important for monitoring and

continuously improving student progress. The

factors and dimensions described in the review

support the study's conclusion that applying

collaborative learning approaches using active

learning techniques improves academic

performance (Sanad et al., 2023). Active

learning methods have been shown to improve

students' data analysis and critical thinking

skills; this is key to understanding the impact of

teaching methodologies on students from

diverse academic backgrounds and ability

levels (Tsai 2024). The evidence has helped us

understand the strong and clear relationship

between the development of critical thinking,

active learning techniques, and effective

assessment, highlighting the relevance of their

application in contemporary educational

practices. The results demonstrate that the

development of socio-emotional competencies

is significantly improved through structured

assessment practices (RQ1), facilitating and

enhancing reflective feedback and supporting

the development of critical thinking. Thematic

analysis revealed that critical thinking is a

multifaceted construct dependent on rigorous

data collection, objective analysis, and

collaborative assessment processes. Finally, the

findings related to RQ3 confirm that active

learning makes students the central axis of the

educational process, promoting their autonomy

and the adequate construction of knowledge.

These key findings underscore the interrelated

roles of assessment, critical thinking, and active

learning in advancing academic performance

and preparing students for real-world

challenges, especially in the evolving post-

COVID educational landscape.

As described, the research questions with their

central themes, RQ1-Assessment, RQ2-Critical

Thinking and RQ3-Active Learning, are related

to the PQR-primary research question. (see Fig.

3).

Figure 3. Relationship of RQ 1-3 with PQR

Using the insights gained from the study,

findings are synthesised, helping to explore the

implications of contemporary educational

practices. In the following section, we reflect on

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the interconnected dimensions addressed in the

research questions and how the study can

inform a post-COVID educational

environment.

According to the results obtained for the

assessment (RQ1), socio-emotional

competencies are directly related to assessment

practices. For example, peer assessment

provides feedback to students, encouraging

self-reflection on their weaknesses and

empathetic exchange of ideas for continuous

improvement (Ilhan et al., 2023). Structuring

assessment methods helps students recognise

their strengths based on collaborative learning,

reflection, and exchanging ideas (Archila et al.,

2024). The study revealed that addressing

psychosocial factors is necessary to overcome

student challenges while focusing on problem-

solving (Vargas et al., 2021). The

comprehensive approach fosters critical

thinking, preparing students for the demands of

the real world with ongoing collaborative

capacity and adaptability. Critical thinking is a

multidimensional construct that must be

supported by applying active learning

techniques and evidence-based assessments

(Bonilla, 2020). Findings demonstrate that

integrating structured assessment methods into

educational systems improves cognitive

flexibility, collaborative problem-solving, and

decision-making (Blewitt et al., 2020).

The findings indicate that critical thinking

(RQ2), a multifaceted process, requires

analytical and reflexive dimensions. The

literature emphasises that rigorous data

selection, validity, and evaluation are crucial for

building strong arguments (Bargiela et al.,

2022). Additionally, objective and critical

analysis plays a key role in systematically

organising data and carefully selecting

evidence, supporting and ensuring that

information is appropriately presented and

relevant (Caratozzolo et al., 2022; Jácome et al.,

2022). Peer and group assessment discussions

are collaborative activities that reinforce these

skills, facilitating reflective communication and

motivating students to evaluate, compare, and

justify their decisions with critical reasoning

(Dominguez, 2024; Surapaneni, 2024). This

holistic framework for critical thinking supports

selecting, organising, and evaluating

information, enhancing reasoning with adaptive

decision-making to achieve academic and

subsequent professional success (Rosenberg

et al., 2024). In the post-COVID era,

educational paradigms favour models where the

student is the central focus of the educational

process. Collaborative learning fosters critical

thinking skills, preparing students for real-

world challenges.

Regarding research question 3 (RQ3), authentic

understanding occurs when students actively

reorganise content, stimulating their learning

(MacKenzie et al., 2024; Rumain et al., 2024).

Active techniques foster student participation,

positioning learners as the primary agents of

their knowledge construction, thereby

significantly contributing to a constructivist

approach. Such active participation also

cultivates collaborative environments, even

among students from different disciplines,

facilitating the exchange of diverse paradigms

and insights in interpreting curricular content

(Tsai, 2024). The analysis confirms that active

and collaborative work enhances learning

outcomes and critical thinking skills, ultimately

leading to improved academic performance, as

reflected in student evaluations (Sanad et al.,

2023). Furthermore, after a comprehensive

literature review, several opportunities and gaps

have emerged for future research. First, given

that only 6% of the sources reviewed come from

Latin American contexts, future studies must

prioritise exploring regional approaches to

active learning strategies and developing

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critical thinking. Second, a focused examination

of Ecuadorian educational contexts is

necessary, as an Ecuadorian perspective

deviates from the predominantly international

source material. This highlights the need for our

country to adopt knowledge-based decision-

making and influence public policies and

practices in education.

Conclusions

The study reveals that integrating structured

assessment practices, robust critical thinking

development, and active learning techniques is

essential for transforming educational practices

in the post-COVID era. The evidence from RQ1

shows that effective assessment, through peer

and self-assessment and clear evaluation

rubrics, enhances socio-emotional

competencies, reflective feedback, and adaptive

problem-solving. Research question 2 (RQ2)

demonstrates that critical thinking is

multifaceted, based on rigorous data selection,

systematic organisation, and collaborative

assessment, all to generate robust arguments

that support informed decision-making.

Research question 3 (RQ3) confirms that active

learning encourages students to become central

agents in the educational process, promoting

their autonomy and collaborative learning

supported by constructivist knowledge. The

interconnected dimensions improve academic

performance and motivate and prepare students

to confront real-world challenges with

creativity and adaptability. The implications for

educational practice and policy are clear:

policymakers and educators must adapt their

decisions and teaching strategies based on

evidence, promoting dynamism and reflection

within a critical analysis framework and active

participation.

Despite the valuable knowledge generated, this

study has several limitations. The systematic

review was limited to open-access articles

published in English and Spanish; only 6% of

the sources were from Latin American contexts,

with minimal focus on Ecuadorian educational

settings. These factors may limit the

generalizability of the findings to cultural and

regional contexts. These limitations must be

taken into account when conducting future

research in the context of Ecuador and Latin

America. Higher-level evidence, such as

randomised controlled trials, should also be

used to validate the effectiveness of the

intervention with the application of active

learning techniques and the development of

critical thinking, contributing to a more

comprehensive approach, evidence-based

understanding of educational practices and

informing policy development tailored to the

needs of diverse learner populations.

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Sevilla, Carlos Julio Castro Angos, José Manuel

Jalil Hover y Miguel Ángel Herrera Pavo